Section IX - Soap Making

Soap making became yet another hobby of mine, which I enjoy in my copious spare time. You can find soap recipes among the cookery books of the time, I thought it might be nice to add this article on soapmaking that I wrote in 1992.

A History of Soap
Basic Theory of Soap Making
Making Soap
Equipment
What Not to Use!
Ingredients
Basic Recipe
Common Problems
Additives
Glycerin and Rosewater Soap
Bibliography

Some Notes on Sweetwater
A Sweetwater
Original Recipes
Method of Preperation

A History of Soap

Soap was discovered early on, and although its not documented (because soap is biodegradable) it is assumed that soap was discovered in prehistoric times. Early people cooking over fires might have noticed that when meat fat and ash mixed a strange foamy substance was produced, and that when they cleaned their utensils they became cleaner. Babylonians recorded soap making in 2800 B.C. and the Phoenicians around 600 B.C. This soap was used for the preparing wool and cotton for weaving. It was made from ashes and was potassium based, which was obtained from alkali content of plant and wood material.

The Romans, as recorded by Pliny the Elder, made soap from goat's tallow and wood ash, to which common salt was added to make the soap hard. A soap factory was discovered in Pompeii, with finished bars of soap. But this soap was not for personal cleaning. The Romans rubbed their bodies with olive oil and sand, which was then scraped off with a strigil (fancy word for scrapper), then the skin was soothed with herbal salves. Cleopatra bathed in mare's milk. Soap was recommended by physicians for treatment of skin conditions. A Roman legend tells of women washing their garments in the Tiber River below Sapo Hill, because clothing washed at this location became cleaner. Why? Because there was a temple at the top of Sapo Hill and the ashes and grease of animals from the sacrificial fires ran down hill to the River. Sapo becoming the basis for the word Saponification which the chemical word for the way soap is made.

The Celts may have discovered soap making independently, but the popular opinion is that they received soap from the Romans. But of all the people that the Romans encountered the Celts were the only ones that took to using soap, and they seem to have been using it for bathing and washing long before other Germanic tribes, and throughout most of the Dark Ages.

When the Roman Empire fell the use of soap also declined. Then in the 8th Century soap making was revived in Italy and Span, possibly because of their contact with the expanding Arab world, who knew soapmaking from the Byzantine Empire. 13th century France was the European producer of soap, and it was an entire century later before England began its own production of soap.

Soaps made in the south of Europe, Italy, Spain, and France were made from olive oils, which produces a higher quality soap. Tallow and fish oil was used in Northern Europe and England which made a lower grade of soap. The soap trade became a lively business.

When the Romans expanded across Europe they left a trail of public bath houses. Some of which remained in use, and others were constructed and were commonly called stews. The stews consisted of large wooden tubs and patrons were given bars of soap to use. Nobles and rich merchants had their own private baths. But, the Church was adamantly against bathing as it promoted nakedness and unseemly sexual conduct. In fact, some of the bath houses were also brothels. But it wasn't until the authorities began shutting down the bath houses, because they feared they helped the spread of plague, that the idea of cleanliness changed. In the Renaissance the idea was to wash parts of your body, i.e. feet, face, etc. and never actually submerge in water. They also covered their bodies with heavy scents, which increased the perfume trade. Soap was used primarily for cleaning clothing and their surroundings.

Soap Making Theory

The technical explanation of soap is the sodium and potassium salt of fatty acid. The salt is merely table salt. The fatty acid are found in oils or animal fat Saponification is when fatty acid meets the alkali.

OK. So how do we do this. Well there are three basic steps. Making the wood ash lye, rendering the fat, and mixing the two together and boiling the mixture to make the soap.

How to make lye. First we must make a liquid solution of potash, this is the lye. The lye is produced by slowly pouring water over the ashes until a brownish liquid was produced and the ash is strained out. I produced mine by using a strainer into which several layers of a fine cheesecloth mesh was placed in the bottom, hardwood ash was placed on top of this, as much as the strainer would hold, then distilled water was poured over it slowly. Water was added periodically over a two day period, until I had about a gallon of lye. A more period way of doing this was to have a bottomless barrel set on a stone slab with a groove and a lip carved in it. The stone in turn rested on a pile of rocks. To prevent the ashes from getting in the solution a layer of straw and small sticks was placed in the barrel then the ashes were put on top. The lye was produced by slowly pouring water over the ashes until a brownish liquid oozed out the bottom of the barrel. This solution of potash lye was collected by allowing it to flow into the groove around the stone slab and drip down into a clay vessel at the lip of the groove. But I live in a town house and this is not possible. You can also buy your lye, it is found among the drain cleaners, buy only one that says 100% lye, a popular brand is Red Devil.

Fats - Rendering fat is easy, you do it every time you boil a chicken. The fat that accumulates on the top of your broth is rendered fat. Fat removed from cattle is called tallow, fat from pigs is called lard. Beef fat can be purchased from your butcher and Lard is readily available (already rendered) in or near the area where the grocery store keeps it bacon. If you render your own you will need to make sure it is cleared of all impurities such as bits of bone or meat.

You can also collect grease made by sausage and bacon over a period of time, but you will need to keep it refrigerated or it will become rancid. Cleaning out the impurities from your fat will result in a better smelling soap. Soap made from less then pure fat will still clean well, it just isn't pleasant to smell. To render fat put it in a large kettle with an equal amount of water, bring to a boil and continue boiling until all the fat has melted. Allow to cool completely, generally over night. The fat will solidify and float to the top of the kettle which will be a clean layer of fat. Impurities are heavier then the fat and should remain in the bottom of the kettle. I recommend you do this step outside on a grill or campfire, as the smell of cooking grease is somewhat over powering, you won't want to smell up your living space.

Mix your fat and lye solution together. To determine the strength of your lye you can try this method. Float an egg (or potato) in the lye. If the object floated with about half of its surface above the lye solution the lye will be good for soap making. If your lye is to weak boil it down or put it through a new batch of ashes. To make a solution weaker add water.

Soap making changed drastically when caustic soda became readily available using the LeBlanc process. This process made hard soap without having to add common salt. I was simple, cheaper, and entire forest did not disappear in its production. It was not an entirely new process as the Egyptians are thought to have employed local soda deposits for their source of alkali. But the new process did change the way in which soap was made, the way in which people viewed washing, and the availability of a high grade product.

Making Soap

You can try some of the techniques described in the section above, or you can experiment with these more modern methods. I suggest you start with the method below and then see about the more period ideas. Sometimes it makes more sense if you are familiar with the craft in its modern form and then recreate the period form.

Equipment

Once you have used your equipment for making soap you will not wish to use it for anything else because of the Lye. So I suggest that you get pans and spoons etc. that you don't use for anything else. I got most of my equipment from Garage Sales and second hand stores. I keep them in a box in the basement when not making soap.

A Large Pot - This can either enamel, granite or stainless steel. Do not get aluminum, it creates a chemical reaction with the lye. You will need at least a 16 quart pot (at least that is the size I have) because different recipes need various sizes and bigger in this case is better. There are some processes where you add extra ingredients and it foams up. You do not want it to foam over the side of your pan and into the fire, burning soap smells really bad.

Wooden Spoons - Enamel pots scratch up easily so it is best to use wooden spoons. They do not have to be in great condition, and the lye will turn them a dark color. DO NOT USE THESE FOR ANY OTHER COOKING, lye will be embedded in the wood. There are people who recommend that you use rubber or silicone spatulas as wood will begin breaking down after a few uses and will leave splinters in your soap. I simply get new spoons every other batch. They are cheap and I think stronger for mixing.

Glass Jar - This is for mixing the water and the lye. When you mix this it turns really hot, upwards of 200 degrees. It also gets hot really fast. So you will need a jar that can take the temperature changes. I use a wide mouth canning jar. I recommend mixing the lye solution in your sink, were it can be easily flushed away should it spill.

Measuring cups - I recommend Pyrex or enamel covered (which are very expensive). Do not use metal for these, especially with the lye.

Scales - some recipes books tell you to weigh our your fat before beginning the melting process. You may wish to do this as it is sometimes easier to judge the correct amounts if you can actually see the measured weight.

Protective Gear - The fumes from the lye can be really noxious and are poisonous. So I like to wear a face mask and safety glasses when mixing the water and lye. Try not to breath the fumes as you stir the two together. Also the mask and glasses protect my face from any splashing. I also wear rubber gloves and long sleeved tops for this step. You may also want a vinyl or rubber protective apron. If you do get some of the lye on you wash it off immediately. I suggest that you use a solution of 1/4 cup vinegar to 1 quart of water to wash the affected area, the vinegar helps to cool the burning. If you have pets or small children you may wish to make sure they can not enter your work area. Lye is a nasty substance that can cause a great deal of damage if spill on top of someone or accidentally ingested. Cover any countertops, tables etc. where you will be making the soap with several layers of newspaper.

Thermometer - You will need two of these, they should be easy to read and have a range of 10 degrees F to 200 degrees F.

Molds - you will need to pour your finished product into something to set-up. You can use a wooden tray lined with heavy duty waxed paper, once firm you can cut the soap into bars. Other things I have tried are yogurt cups, cottage cheese containers, candle molds, sea shells, ice cube trays, candy molds and even milk cartons. To use these put a very thin layer of oil on the mold before pouring in the soap. You should have your molds ready for pouring before you begin your soap making process.

What not to use

Anything made of aluminum, tin, iron, or Teflon. They can be corroded by the lye. Do not use cast iron, unless you want to be very period. The cast iron will color your soap to a nice black shade, and were as it will be perfectly good soap it will look unappealing.

Ingredients

Water - Use distilled water. Some water purification or treatments actually add chemicals to your water. Distilled water is easily available and you will not have to worry about bad reactions.

Lye - This ingredient is sodium hydroxide. It is very harmful and available at every grocery store. Do not get Drain Cleaner. Lye will clean your drains. Drain Cleaner will not make soap. Make sure that you buy as close to the amount that you intend to use as possible. If you do have to store some of it, make sure that children, pets and other noisy people can never, never get into to it. Mix it in your sink, it will eat the shine off Formica instantly and permanently. You might want to mix this outside, were no countertops or table tops can be affected. Wear protective gloves, goggles, safety glasses and long sleeved shirts to mix the water and the lye. You will be dissolving the lye into cold water. Never pour the water into the lye, it will explode. Stir the lye into the water, meaning pour and stir at the same time. If you don't the lye will settle to the bottom and become solid, almost immediately. If this happens tap it with your spoon and it should break up. The lye and water will begin to get very hot, up to about 200 degrees F. If you are doing a large amount of lye, it can actually make the water boil. Boiling water can create extra splashing. If the water is boiling stop stirring until the boiling has stopped. The lye crystals will take about a minute to dissolve completely. The water will become relatively clear at this point. Make such the lye solution is below 100 degrees before adding to your fat.

Fats and Oils - Traditionally fats from animals have been used to make soap. Beef fat called tallow makes the best soap. Pork fat know as lard makes medium soap. And Chicken fat makes poor soap. You can also use various oils to create your soaps. Everything from olive oil to vegetable oils. You can also mix your fats to give you various types of soap, that's why there are so many different soap recipes. I have already discussed how to render fat and you may wish to use this process if you have fat that is rancid or dirty. Soap made from lard beats tallow and oils for gentleness to the skin, it cleans really real, but it doesn't produce a good lather. Most people think that you have to have a lather in order for the soap to work. It isn't true but if you must have bubbles you should use olive or coconut oil as they bubble up really well. 25% of your fat must be made up of one of these oils in order for the bubbles to appear. One rule of thumb you should know is that the lighter the oil the longer it will take to thicken up.

A Basic Recipe

This is a small recipe. It is better to try small batches then large ones. I like to make lots of different soaps throughout the year. If you make a years supply all at once you will be clean, but it will be boring. And it will be a year before you can try a different recipe.

1 Cup Distilled Water
10 level teaspoons lye
2 cups fresh lard or solid shortening

Measure your fat into your pot and melt over low heat. When melted remove from heat and cool until it is between 120 to 130 degrees. Use a thermometer for best results. Read the section on lye again just for good measure. Then in a wide mouth canning jar add the lye to the distilled water, carefully stirring until all of the lye is dissolved. Be very careful and try to keep your face well away from this solution. Using your second thermometer cool the lye to about 90 to 95 degrees. Both solutions must be lukewarm, with the fat being a bit hotter then the lye solution. Now pour the lye into the fat (not the other way round). You will need to stir the mixture as you pour in the lye solution. You should pour evenly and slowly and you should stir with slow even strokes. This helps cut down on any splashing.

As you stir the sponification process begins. You will need to stir for 20 to 45 minutes, generally. There have been times when it took much longer. If the spoon stands up in the middle of the bowl by itself, it should be ready. Another way to tell if its ready is the "trace" method. When your soap has thickened somewhat let some of the soap run off your mixing spoon back into the mixture. The falling soap should stay on top and doesn't blend in, leaving it's trace mark on the top. When the mixture begins to thicken (it should look like the consistency of thick gravy) and the surface of the mixture looks satiny you can add coloring agents, various clays and grains, and various scents. Stir these in quickly and pour immediately into your molds or wooden box.

To keep the soap from cooling to quickly you should cover it with several towels or even blankets. If the soap cools to quickly it will not harden properly. Now leave the soap alone for 24 hours. Don't even peek at it. In 24 hours it will be firm but not hard. It can be removed from the molds without a problem or cut into bars. Now you need to allow the soap to age for at least 2 weeks.

The lye in the soap will have been chemically changed in those two weeks so that it is no longer harmful. Sometimes there can be a dusty coating on the soap (which is the lye residue) but it is harmless and can be scraped off easily.

Common Problems

If it is hot outside (warm summer days) your soap may not thicken readily. That's because the outside temperature may not be allowing the soap to cook enough to begin the soponification process. Fill your sink with cool water and place your pan into it. The water should come half way up your pan. Continue stirring and it should start to set-up.

If the mixture only thickens only so much go ahead an put it in your molds it might in 24 hours time surprise you and have hardened up.

If the soap curdles, you need to dispose of it immediately. Curdled soap looks like rice floating in a vat of fat. It has to much lye in it per fat and there is no way to redo it. The lye is still an acid so you will need to dispose of it in a safe way.

If it is taking a long time to set-up you may just need to stir it longer. If this happens and you have been stirring for say 20 to 30 minutes, stop stirring and do something else for a while. Come back every 15 minutes and stir it back together for say 5 minutes (the fat and lye will separate into layers) You may have to repeat the process several times. When you get to the trace stage it will not have separate layers but will remain together. That is when you can pour it into your molds.

You may want to use a whisk to blend your lye and fat. The finer these two are mixed the sooner it will set-up .

Additives

You add scents, color and textures to your soap just before putting it in the molds.

Color - Powdered spices were used in period to color and scent soaps. Turmeric, saffron and curry make various shades of cream to peach. Cayenne and paprika for tangerine to salmon. Cinnamon and cloves range between beige to caramel to deep chocolate coloring. Measure your spices as 1/2 teaspoon of spice to 1 cup of fat. You will want to use a little of the hot fat or vegetable oil to get the colors started then add the colored fat back into the soap mixture when its time.

Scent - If you want a strong scent you may wish to try a few drops essential oils. Some work better then others so you should try chamomile, bergamot, frankincense, hyssop, juniper, lemon, marjoram, orange blossom, cedarwood, citronella, clove, eucalyptus, geranium, lavender, patchouli, peppermint, rosemary, sandalwood and thyme. Rose scent is lovely for a while but it fades quickly. You can also buy fragrances made especially for soapmaking. You can also try some fragrances and extracts. I liked the vanilla soap I made with kitchen grade vanilla. The vanilla that we made with a vanilla bean didn't hold its scent as long.

Liquid - You can replace part or all of the water with one of the following: strong herbal tea, milk, fruit or vegetable juices, herb extracts, rose or other waters, witch hazel, vinegar, aloe vera etc.

Oils - add up to 2 liquid ounces of any of the following: wheat germ, cocoa butter, lanolin, salve, beeswax, pine tar, vitamin E, coconut oil, jojoba oil.

Abrasives - add up to 2 weight ounces of any of the following: oatmeal, bran, cornmeal, pumic, kelp, finely ground herbs such as parsley or mint, finely ground loofah sponge, finely ground almonds or coconut, clay, and rosin.

Softeners - 1 teaspoon borax or washing soda

I don't recommend that you use the following ingredients, even though some recipes call for it.

Sugar - it can crystallize and not mix in well.

Salt - originally used to harden soap and to take out the glycerin, it is now unnecessary

Ammonia - I don't like the way this makes the soap smell.

Here is a recipe that I liked and thought you might like to use it to get used to adding other ingredients to your soap.

Glycerin and Rosewater Soap

16 ounces solid vegetable shortening
4 ounces coconut oil
4 tablespoons glycerin
10 teaspoons lye
8 ounces rosewater.

Stir the lye into the rosewater. The mixture may change color, but that's normal. Over low-medium heat melt the fats together. Cool to 85 degrees. When lye is 95 to 90 degrees mix in the glycerin. Cool to about 84 degrees before adding to fat. Stir lye into fat. Stir until it thickens pour into molds. It will have a natural scent and color, so you don't have to add extra.

Bibliography

Making Soaps and Candles , Phyllis Hobson Storey Communications,Inc. 1973

Soap , Ann Bramson Workman Publishing Company 1975

The Art of Soap Making , Merilyn Mohr Camden House Publishing 1979

A Book of Country Things , Barrows Mussey Stephen Greene Press, 1965

Home Life in Colonial Days , Alice Morse Earle The MacMillan Company‚ 1899

Over the Counter and on the Shelf , Laurence A. Johnson Charles E. Tuttle Comapny Publishers 1961

Professional and Industrial History of Suffolk County, The Boston History Company

The Arts and Crafts in New England , Da Carpo Press 1967

The Seasons of America's Past , Eric Sloane Wilfred Funk, Inc.

SOAP. Making It, Using It, Enjoying It." by Ann Sela Bramson, Workman Publishing Company, NY, 1972

A Sweet Water

In the Middle Ages the Lady of the House almost always was the source of every day common items. All of which had to be made. There was no corner drugstore at which to buy aspirin, cosmetics, perfumes or deodorants, or for that matter air fresheners. These were all concocted in the dry rooms and kitchens of the households. In most period cookery books you will also discover recipes for soap, lotions, potions, and notions of every sort. To that end I decided that adding my hobbies of perfumery, soap making, herbalism, and miscellaneous housecraft were in keeping with the spirit of this book. I may in later editions make this a separate publication, but for now I hope that you enjoy my housewifery, as it has always been a joy to me.
Lady Annyse

Disclaimer: Never use any product that you do not know is safe. What I have included here should not harm you, but if you are taking medications or have allergies of any sort please test them sparingly or not at all. If you have a medical condition you should be under the care and supervision of a qualified health care professional. I can not guarantee the ingredients, processes or end product for anyone but myself. As these are recipes, open to interpretation, I urge you to take caution. Use common sense and when in doubt stop doing whatever it is you are doing. It is better to waste ingredients then to suffer harm of any sort. Thank you.

A Sweet Water

Not all recipes within a Period Cookery Book were for food. To that end I have included this recipe and documentation that I used to create a Sweet Water. I entered this into the Kingdom A&S Competition and received a first place. It smells wonderful and I use it regularly in my rinse water at home.

Primary Source
Delights for Ladies, 1594 - Sir Hugh Platt
Herbal, 1550 - Askham

Secondary Source
Rose Recipes from Olden Times - Eleanor Sinclair Rohde

Original Recipes

To Make a Special Sweet Water to Perfume Clothes in the Folding being Washed - Take a quart of Damask rose water and put it into a glasses, put into it a handful of lavender flowers, two onces of Orris, a dram of Muske, the weight of four pence of Amber-greece, as much Civet, foure drops of Opyle of Cloves, stop with close, and set it in the Sunne a fortnight; put one spoonfull of this water into a bason of common water and put it into a glasse and so sprinkle your clothes therewith in your folding: the dregs left in the bottome (when the water is spent) will make as much more, if you keepe them, and put fresh Rose-water to it. - Sir Hugh Platt, Delights for Ladies 1594.

Recipe used within the main preparation:

Rose Water. Some do put rose water in a glass and they put roses with their dew thereto and they make it to boile in water, then they set it in the Sune tyll it be readd and this water is best. - Askham's Herbal 1550.

A Discussion of Some of the Ingredients.

Rosewater - Make this according to the recipe above. Gather about 20 cups loose rose petals, make sure that they are not hybrids as the scent may not be as strong. Put into a ceramic pan and bring them just to boiling with about a quart of distilled water. Then pour into a wide mouth glass jar and add more water until they are completely covered. I used about a gallon of water. Allow to sit in a sunny part of your kitchen for about 2 weeks, stirring occassionally.

Ambergris - This is the product of the sperm whales, and originally was found washed up on beaches. It was heavily used in cosmetic perfumery at the cost of thousands of whales that were killed to collect the substance, even though it occurred naturally and was a renewable source, for that reason, I will not use this substance. However, there are lots of artificial ambergris substances on the market, they are not as pricey and serve the same purpose.

Civit - This is mentioned in the first recipe and I opted not to use it. There is some historical documentation to the effect that not everyone liked its scent. "Lady, I would descend to kiss thy hand, but that 'tis gloved, and civet makes me sick." -- Phillip Massinger. It has an overpowering gamey odor which in even small doses is rather offensive. In tiny amounts it smells sweet which is why it was used in perfuming. I do not like the way in which this oil is acquired. It is the oil of the Civet cat which lives in Sri Lanka, India and Africa. It is not killed to obtain the oil, instead it is painfully scraped. Being a cat lover, I find this appalling. There is a artificial civet on the market, I have read about it in books, but have been unable to locate a source. I decided not to use this ingredient at all, it would be difficult to work with, as even a little to much and the scent would be ruined. I liked the finished product without it.

Clove Oil - I like to make my own versus the commercial product. Cover a jar full of cloves with sweet oil and allow to sit in the sun for about 3 weeks. It mixes better with the other scents then the commercial variety. (You can also add Cinnamon pieces and Nutmeg pieces to the oil and it will make a fine Christmas oil for scenting your strewning herbs.)

Method of Preparation

Having assembled all of your ingredients, place them in a gallon jug in the following proportions:

1 cup lavender flowers
2 ounces of Orris root (1 scant cup)
1 tablespoon musk
1/2 teaspoon ambergris (synthetic)
4 to 10 drops of clove oil (adjust as you see fit)

Cover with the rose water. Allow to sit in a sunny corner of the Kitchen for about 3 weeks. Strain the matter out of your water. I put it through a strainer the first time and through coffee filters the next two times. Don't allow it to sit in the sun once you have strained out the plant matter as it will diminish the scent. Dilute to sprinkle on your clothing as you are folding them and putting them away. I use this regularly on our sheets. Do not consume, it is a scent not a beverage. I also soaked a wash cloth in the scent and allowed to dry. This I added to my clothing in the dryer.